Biology – Patterns in nature –3. Plants and animals have specialized structures to obtain nutrients from their environments

Identify some examples that demonstrate the structural and functional relationships between cell, tissue, organs and organ systems in multicellular organisms.

Cells: basic unit of life

Tissues: Cells with the same specialization

Organs: A collection of tissues which form together to make a specific function.

Organ system: Various organs function together as systems

Example:

Neurone (nerve cell)	Cell
Neurone tissue	Tissue
Brain	Organ
Nervous system	Organ system

 

Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms of nutrient requirements

Autotroph: self feeders – are organisms which make their own foods. Plants are autotrophs and make their own food via photosynthesis.

Heterotrophs: other feeders – are organisms which rely on autotrophs for their food.

*As heterotrophs rely on autotrophs for their food, they gain their nutrients from the nutrients produced by autotrophs.

 

Identify the materials required for photosynthesis and its role in ecosystems

Materials required for photosynthesis:

• Carbon dioxide
  
• Water (from soil)
  
• Energy from sunlight
  
• Chlorophyll
  

Role in ecosystems:

• Provides nutrients for autotrophs and heterotrophs
  
• Provides oxygen for respiration (in mitochondria) in animal cells
  

Identify the general word equation for photosynthesis and outline as a chain of biochemical reactions

Carbon dioxide + water ---light energy--- > glucose + oxygen

Explain the relationship between the organization of structures used to obtain water and minerals in a range of plants and the need to increase surface area available for absorption.

Water is important to plants (and animals) because it is used in every cell to dissolve substances, carry the dissolved substances through the cell membrane and to use them in cell functions. Water loss must be counteracted to ensure that cells have enough liquid, otherwise they will die. Root hairs of roots absorb water from the soil through osmosis, the roots are long and the root hairs extend out through the soil to increase surface area available for water absorption. Minerals, which occur as dissolved ions in the water, absorbed by roots are necessary for organism growth and repair.

Explain the relationship between the shape of leaves, the distribution of tissues in them and their roles.

Flat shape	Large S.A. exposed to sunlight for photosynthesis
Mesophyll Cells	Contain large amounts of chloroplasts, to increase rate of photosynthesis
Stomata	Open and close to limit and increase the rate of gaseous exchange and loss of water
Spongy mesophyll	Creates an internal airspace in which co2 and water can diffuse in and oxygen can diffuse out
Xylem vessels	Transports water to photosynthetic cells
Phloem tissues	Transports products of photosynthesis (sugars)

 

Describe the role of teeth in increasing the surface area of complex foods for exposure to digestive chemicals

The roll of teeth in a digestive system is to break large foods into smaller pieces, increasing S.A and allowing larger exposure to digestive chemicals.

Explain the relationship between length and overall complexity of digestive systems of a vertebrate herbivore and a vertebrate carnivore with respect to: -the chemical composition of their diet, -the functions of the structures involved

Herbivore:

Chemical composition of diet: Mainly cellulose (from plants, found in cell wall), Nutrients are very dispersed and unconsecrated.

Length and complexity: Long digestive system in comparison to carnivores (especially the large intestine and caecum). The long large intestine provides a large surface area to absorb water and minerals. The increased surface area of the caecum provides a large surface area for the bacterial enzymes in the caecum to break down cellulose into less complex minerals. Some mammals (eg: cows) have 4 stomachs, which allow them to break down plant matter more efficiently, others re-digest fecal matter in to digest minerals which didn't have a chance to be absorbed the first time through. Herbivores have a large number of molar teeth which serve to grind down plant material, increasing S.A. for action of enzymes.

Carnivore:

Chemical composition of diet: Mainly protein diet (from tissues in animals), Nutrients are concentrated.

Length and complexity: short system in comparison to herbivores (reduced or no caecum, small long intestine and larger small intestine). The caecum isn't present in many carnivore digestive systems because carnivores do not have cellulose in their diet. The small large intestine is due to the large intestine being for water absorption, and carnivores don't rely on food for water. The larger small intestine serves to give a large area for digestion of food into the bloodstream. Carnivores have a large proportion of canine teeth for tearing flesh.

 

 

 

Biology – Patterns in nature – 1. Organisms are made of cells that have similar structural characteristics

Historical development of the cell theory

The development of the cell theory began in the late 1400s and early 1500s when lenses were first being used. In 1965, Robert Hooke was the first to look at an object (cork) under a microscope. A few years later in 1676, Leuinhooke looked at water and observed "living things". In 1827, Robert Brown showed that all living things were made of cells and that all cells were made up of smaller organelles.

Evidence supporting the cell theory

Cell theory is the theory of Schleiden and Schwann in 1838 that states "all living things are made up of cells, and all cells are made from pre-existing cells". There is much evidence supporting the cell theory, including the observation of cells through microscopes, the use of stains and dies to observe chemical processes for example observing chemical processes such as cell division, and the use of electron microscopes to gain an understanding of cell and organelle structure.

Identify cell organelles, their structure and function

Organelle	How organelle can be observed	Structure and function of organelle
Cell membrane	Light microscope	Composed of a bi-layer of phospholipids with proteins embedded within. Acts as a wall to control the flow of substances in and out of a cell.
Cytoplasm	Light microscope	A watery fluid which contains water and dissolved salts. Supports and suspends organelles and provides the cell organelles with water.
Nucleus	Light microscope	Control centre of a cell, surrounded by a double layered cell membrane which serves to protect DNA and stop it from leaving the nucleus. The nucleus houses DNA and regulates cell functions via protein synthesis.
Nuclear membrane	Electron microscope	A double layered membrane surrounding the nucleus which allows RNA and proteins in and out of the nucleus.
Nucleolus	Electron microscope	A dark spherical area inside the nucleus, contains RNA
Mitochondria	Electron microscope	Double membrane, inner membrane is folded into a cristrae for increased SA. Mitochondria converts chemical energy into biological energy, performing cell respiration. (glucose + oxgen -> carbon dioxide + water + ATP (chemical energy – Adenosine triphosphate)
Endoplasmic Reticulum	Electron microscope	A system of membranes, which act to connect the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. Used for transport and provides a surface for chemical reactions. There are two types of E.R. smooth: detoxifies harmful bacteria and makes lipids and steroids. No attached ribosomes Rough: aids the production of proteins thanks to attached ribosomes.
Ribosomes	Electron Microscope	The site of protein synthesis, where protein is built by the cell. They can be attached to rough E.R. or floating in cytoplasm.
Golgi body	Electron Microscope	Flattened sacs of cell membrane, stacked loosely on top of one another. Collects proteins produced by cells and packages them into vesicles.
Vacuoles and vesicles	Electron Microscope	Storage sacs containing food water and waste. Cacuoles are larger and formed in phagocycotis (cell eating) Vacuoles are smaller and formed by phagocytosis (cell eating)
Lysosomes	Electron Microscope	Double membraned vacuoles which contain lytic enzymes (digestive enzymes) Digest food vacuoles and allow an organism to destroy old/ malfunctioning cell parts.
Cilia and flagella	Optical Microscope	Hair like projectiles which use energy to move cells. Made of "microtubules" and function to move the cell or fluids. Cilia – short and many flagella – long and few
Centrioles (animal cell only)	Electron microscope	A pair of organelles which grow spindle fibres to attach and move chromosomes during mitosis
Cell wall (plant cell only)	Optical microscope	Made of long strands o cellulose, lignin and pectin and support the structure of an organism, protect the cell and form a bridge to adjacent cells
Chloroplasts (plant cell only)	Electron microscope	Have a double layered membrane and structures called stroma, which are bound to the membrane and organized into stacks called grana. Contain pigments and enzymes for photosynthesis as well as ribosomes and DNA.

Classification of Law

Legal Studies – Midcourse Study Notes

Classification of Law

Public Law

Public laws, referred to as social norms, are those laws that set the general standard of behaviour expected by a society. Public Laws include criminal law, administrative law and constitutional law.

Criminal Law

Criminal laws are usually established by statute, although some cases have established criminal law through common law. It is considered public law because when a person breaks a criminal law they are said to be harming all members of society. Hence, the case is brought by the police and prosecution on behalf of society. There are several broad classifications of criminal laws. They are:

• Crimes Against Persons – these crimes involve injury or threat of injury to another person
• Crimes Against Property – These crimes involve the theft or damage to another person’s property. Much of Australia’s law relates to this type of crime.
• Crimes Against the State or Sovereign – These involve crimes that damage the country and its people.
• Public Order Offenses – These crimes disrupt the activities of a society.
• Traffic Offenses
• White-Collar Crimes – This covers a wide variety of crime usually committed by professional people.
• Drug Offenses – These are offenses against the state involving prohibited narcotics.

Administrative Law
Administritive laws regulate the operation of the government and its various departments.

Constitutional Law
A constitution is a legal document outlining the powers and operation of the government. In a democratic society governments and its members must abide by the rules established in the constitution or they will be dismissed from office.

Private or Civil Law
Private law is often referred to as civil law and deals with legal relations between individuals and organisations. The key difference between private and public law is the role of the individual. In private law the individual brings the action and is called the Plantiff. There are three main areas of civil law:

• Contract Law - A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more parties. Contract law stipulates that in order for a contract to be valid and therefore enforceable there must be:
• An ‘invitation to treat’
• An offer
• Consideration
• Acceptance
• Another feature of contract law is that it requires parties who enter into it a contract do so in good faith, which means that the parties will act fairly and not try and deceive the other party.
• Property Law - Anything that can be bought sold is considered property. There are numerous laws governing the way that property transactions are to take place. Insurance is a key aspect of property law.
• Tort Law - The law of torts involves civil wrongs; they are divided into four key areas:
• Tort of Negligence – Very common tort; revolves around the concept of ‘duty of care'.
• Tort of Nuisance – Involves one person interfering with another’s rights. Many cases that are heard in community justice centres involve this tort.
• Tort of Defamation
• Tort of Trespass

Criminal and Civil Court Procedures
Personnel:

• Judges and Magistrates – Preside over courts, they are legally qualified professionals. Judges sit in intermediate and superior courts and their role is to adjudicate in cases. The judge is also required to issues sentences and rulings. A magistrate sits in the inferior courts and determines cases, issues rulings and sentences.
• Barristers – They provide legal advice and present their clients case in court.
• Solicitors – Usually the first person that someone who is seeking legal advice will approach. Mostly they make no appearance in courts. Main duties include the preparation of wills, family law issues and the drawing up of legal documents. Main role is to prepared the case or brief for a barrister.

Procedures for Criminal Cases
Two parties are referred to as prosecutor and defendant. Prosecution represents the community and in trials is referred to as the crown. Usually has a jury of 12 people, who’s role it is to determine the case. The Judge role is to advise the jury and to deal with any questions of the law. The jury must be convinced beyond reasonable doubt. The burden of proof lies on the prosecution. If the defendant is found guilty, the judge will order a sentencing hearing where the judge will determine the sentence to be given.

Procedures for Civil Cases
Two parties are known as plaintiff and defendant. The process begins with a statement of claim, which is then served and responded to with a statement of defence. If the dispute is not resolved, it then goes to trial. The judge then awards relief if in favour of plaintiff, depending on the balance of probabilities.

Common and Civil Law Systems

• Common Law Systems - Key feature is the ability of judges to make laws, which is limited to only where there is a gap in statue law. It developed from England and its common law.
• Civil Law Systems - The Roman civil law system has no room for judges to make laws and it makes use of the inquisitorial system (the judges investigate rather than have the evidence show to them by each side in the adversarial system).
  

Society and Culture – Social and Cultural world - Concepts

The unit "The Social and cultural world" is a study on the interactions between persons, societies, cultures and environments both in contemporary society and societies across time. In this unit there is a list of fundamental concepts which are important to understand as part of the SAC course.

As with my previous post on the concepts of society and culture these definitions are only broad overhangs in efforts to provide a basic understanding of the concepts.

Social and cultural literacy

The goal of the SAC course is to achieve Social and Cultural literacy. A socially and culturally literate person is able to communicate across society and other societies as they understand their place in society and are able to understand the different values, beliefs, customs and behaviors. They understand that people's values and beliefs may differ dramatically both within their society and across societies and are able to communicate to them without bias, judgment or prejudice because of their differing behaviors.

Micro world

A person's micro world is their immediate world of connections, consisting of family, peers, school and work, as well as any other social groups that a person may belong to. It is the world that you are connected to via personal experience, and throughout the SAC course you are often asked to refer to examples from your micro world.

Macro world

This refers to the broad outside world that exists beyond your micro world. It is the world communicated through access to public knowledge. Your country, the international community or the rest of your society outside of your direct connections are your macro world.

Community

The term community generally refers to a group of people who are drawn together by common interests, ideas, values, location and networks.

Communication

Communication is what undermines societies, because communication is the way that people within society interact with one another. Communication can refer to the macro world forms of communication such as television, the internet and newspapers as well as micro world communication in the form of talking. Communication can also refer to the reflected ideas of symbols within a society (eg: flags).

Conflict

Conflict is the disagreements that occur within the various levels of a society. Conflict is caused by inequality within a society, a lack of understanding of differing ideas and values or a struggle for power. (example of conflict: Trade unions and employer organizations frequently disagreeing over workers rewards and conditions).

Socialization

The socialization process is the progression from a child to an adult within a society. Socialization is learning the values and beliefs of your culture as well as developing your personal values and understanding of the world. By the end of the socialization process, an unsocialised child will become a fully functioning and belonging member of their society.

Enculturation

Enculturation is the learning of accepted patterns and behaviors of a culture, and how to implement them in order to fit into a society.

Acculturation

Acculturation is the learning and understanding of other cultures and the transfer of knowledge from one culture to one another.

Cooperation

Collaboration refers to the collaboration of people in a society working together to achieve a common goal. "team behavior" is cooperation in action.

Change

Change is the understanding that something has become different to the way it was before. It refers to the break in a tradition and the differing beliefs and values that occur across time.

Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism refers to a society in which people with a wide variety of cultural practices are present. Australia for example, is referred to as a multicultural society because even though there are a wide variety of cultural differences between the people within the Australian society, yet they all act as one society. Multiculturalism is an example of intercultural communication in action.

Society and Culture – The Concepts

In Society and Culture (from now on abbreviated SAC) there are 5 Major concepts through which students use in order to interpret and discuss personal experiences from their micro worlds and through observation of their macro world (Micro and Macro worlds to be covered in my next blog post). These concepts (Society, Culture, Persons, Environment and Time) all make up the backbone of the society and culture course and are used in order to gain an understanding of the world, societies and cultures. In addition to the 5 major concepts, there is also 4 secondary concepts (Technology, Power, Authority and Gender) which are often also referred to and used when performing a depth study and throughout the course.

The following is an attempt to make a very brief summary of the fundamental ideas behind the concepts, although, this should not be taken as gospel as these concepts are broad and open to interpretation.

Society

The concept of society refers to the links which connect people together as a group. The connections within a society can be as large scale as the media or as small scale as a sporting group. A society is bacically a collaboration of these groups, to form a network of people. The SAC syllabus defines society as "human relationships from small groups to large systems".

Culture

The concept of Culture refers to the shared ideas, knowledge and beliefs of a society. Values, arts, technology and laws are all examples of the culture of a society, and different cultures may have differing views on these areas. The SAC syllabus defines culture as "Knowledge shared by members of these groups and systems and reflected in their customs, values, laws, arts, technology and artifacts; their way of life.

Persons

The concept of Persons refers to the individuals within a society. Although each person has their own individual values, opinions and connections which differ from those of other people, each person of a society for the most part maintains the beliefs and ideas of their culture. The SAC syllabus defines persons as "The individual human; their relationships with other persons and with society, culture and the environment over time".

Environment

The concept of environment refers to both the physical and meta-physical settings in which a person is situated. The Social environment of a society and psychological environment of a culture are examples of the metaphysical environments. The SAC syllabus defines environment as "Settings where people live and work, the interaction between people and their environment, their perceptions of the environment and their actions to improve their environment"

Time

The concept of time refers to the constant advances through society, and is measured as "past, present and future". The main points of discussion of time in regards to SAC involve the changes that have occurred within a society from the past and perceptions of what the future will be like. The SAC syllabus defines time as "the conscious passage of existence; perceptions of the past, present and future".

 

Legal Studies - International Law

Differences Between Domestic and International Law

	International Law	Australian Domestic Law
Application	Applies only to those nations that agree to be bound by the law	Is universal, meaning it applies to all
Enforcement	Complex legal tribunals exist but countries are permitted to exempt themselves from cases	Law Enforcement agencies exist, such as the police, to enforce the law
Creation	Made through negotiations between nations	Made by the parliament (statute) or the rulings of judges (common)

State Sovereignty

The notion of state sovereignty is at the centre of international law. It states that all nations are fundamentally equal and that each nation’s rulers have the right to make decisions on behalf of the nation.

State sovereignty gives nations the right to refuse to participate in international laws and in hearings of international courts and tribunals.

 Sources of Law:

International Customary Law

An international custom is a rule that has been established because it has long been a tradition and followed by many nations. Until the 19^th Century, almost all international law was customary, but customary law takes a long time to create. Despite the decrease in active creation of customary law, laws such as “The Law of The Sea” are largely based on customary law.

Instruments (declarations and treaties)

These can include conventions, protocols, covenant and declarations, but all cab be referred to as treaties. A treaty is described as an agreement between nations that is entered voluntarily. Those nation states which have signed are known as “parties to the agreement” and agree to be bound by the conditions and rules established in the agreement.

There are two main types of treaties. These are:

1. Bilateral Treaties – these are treaties between two nations
2. Multilateral Treaties – treaties between more than two nations.

 There is no prescribed way of making a treaty, although most follow this method:

1. Negotiation – various nations that have an interest in the treaty discuss the clauses and conditions of the treaty
2. Consent to be bound – participating nations agree to be bound by the treaty and they sign it.
3. Ratification – considered the most important step, it involves the signatory nation passing domestic law to accept the treaty.
4. Reservation - this allows nations to withdraw from a treaty or a part of it.

Legal Decisions

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) deals with most international law disputes. It is part of the United Nations structure and has the power to make rulings regarding treaties that nominate the court as the dispute resolution mechanism. Its rulings are considered a subsidiary means of international law making, but whilst not setting precedent, they are becoming an important source of international law as the ICJ has a tendency to use past cases to influence rulings.

Aside from the ICJ, there are also specialised international courts and tribunals. Cases involving war crimes are heard in ad hoc war crimes tribunals.

Legal Writings

In the 16^th – 18^th Centuries, legal writings established that the concepts of Natural Law – which held that law came from God and was above the authority of the state – were dominate. This included international law.

 By the 19^th Century, the concept of positive law took over dominance.  This put a greater emphasis on the role of the state in making law and treaties and customs began to dominate international law rather than the legal writings.

 Legal Writings in the 20^th Century are important as they focus the attention on defects in international law, leading to the rectification of these flaws. They also stimulate discussion and debate about the nature of the law.

Roles of organisations

The United Nations (UN)

When it was first established in 1945, the UN saw itself as providing a forum for nations in dispute with each other, but would not intervene in any matter that was domestic. In more recent times, the UN has deployed peacekeeping forces to various places where internal conflicts have developed. It remains a powerful force in the promotion of world peace and international law, despite heavy criticism. It uses a vast array of organisations to promote human rights and has established a legal framework for the prosecution of international criminals.

Courts and Tribunals

·         The International Court of Justice (ICJ) – this is the main judicial organisation of the UN. It consists of 15 judges and it serves two main functions:

1.        to decide on disputes brought before it by member nations

2.       To offer legal advice on matters of international law when requested by a member nation.

The ICJ is a court for nations only, only nations can bring a case to court. However, the ICJ’s jurisdiction is limited to agreements which have given jurisdiction over disputes to the ICJ, or from countries who have agreed to accept the ICJ’s jurisdiction on all matters.

·         War Crimes Tribunals – these are special international courts, created when needed (ad hoc) to try individuals accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity.

·         International Criminal Court (ICC) – created by a special treaty known as the Rome Statue in 2002.  This court is a permanent court and deals with cases against individuals who have been accused of the most serious international crimes (eg. Genocide.) The ICC will not hear as case that is currently under investigation by another body unless the investigation is no genuine or it is unfair.

Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs)

These are organisations that represent the governments of member nations. The UN is the most significant, but other regional based ones such as the European Union (EU) exist. These organisations have their own international laws and regulations; some enforce these with their own tribunals and sanctions.

Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs)

These groups represent special-interest groups but are not recognised under international law and have no direct legal role. However, they play a significant role in applying political pressure to nations to abide by international laws.

Relevance to Contemporary Australian Law

Australia plays a very active role in international law, being one of the found members of the UN and remains active in UN peacekeeping activities.

International law plays an important part for Australian Domestic Law as well. Eg. Tasmanian Dam Case (1983) – Franklin River Dam blocked by Federal Government after Government signed treaty regarding world heritage listed Gordon River.

Mathematics > Graphs > Functions & Graphs (Pt. 1)

Relations and Functions
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. eg. (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 6), (-1, 6) and (-4, 1) is a relation. This can be plotted on a number plane:

A function is a special type of relation where for every x value there is only ONE y value. The above example is not a function, as an x value of 1 gives 2 different y values of 3 and 5. eg. (1, 3), (2, 6), (-1, 6) and (-4, -1) is a function.

If ordered pairs follow a pattern or rule, then the function can be written as an equation. eg. (-1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 2) satisfy the equation y = x + 1.

Vertical Line Test

If a set of ordered pairs is graphed on the number plane, there is a way of checking if they form a function. eg. In the above example, there are two y values for one x value. On a number plane, they lie in a vertical line:

In general, if any x value gives more than one y value, then these points lie in a vertical line. If there is only one y value for an x value, then no point will lie vertically above another.

Even functions are symmetrical about the y-axis.

Odd functions have point symmetry. Rotating 180 degrees about the origin gives the same graph.

The x-intercept is where a graph cuts the x-axis. The value of y is 0 everywhere along the x-axis.

The y-intercept is where a graph cuts the y-axis. The value of x is 0 everywhere along the y-axis.

The domain is the set of all possible x values, whereas the range is the set of all possible y values.

Natasha Stott Despoja Speech

Structure
Past
Identifies a problem of the past.
- eg. Women working: “...except in 1969. So appalled were some women at my mother’s intention of being a working mother that they walked out in disgust".
Present
Identifies such a problem still exists in the present.
- eg. “But we still have a long way to go in our society before women have equality”.
(concludes with the) Future
Presents a Utopian situation where the issue/issues have been solved.
eg. Stott Despoja presents her desire for a truly representative parliament.

Inclusive Pronouns
We is an inclusive pronoun. The effect of using an inclusive pronoun is bringing the issue to the audience and also connects the speaker with the audience, which allows for a more effective conveyance of their message.

Stott Despoja makes use of inclusive pronouns throughout her speech. Inclusive pronouns like “we” and “us” connect the speaker to their audience. Stott Despoja uses this in her concluding paragraphs to effectively convey her desire for change to occur. This is evident in the sentence: “We have the ensure that young people’s issues are addressed”. By beginning this sentence with the inclusive pronoun it motivates the audience to act with Stott Despoja to create change.

Personal References
Personal references serve two purposes. Firstly, the engage the audience by providing information the audience might not know. Secondly, it humanises the speaker, making them engage the audience as an equal, which allows for a more effective communication of the message.
- eg. “I addressed a women’s group that my mother had spoken to the year that I was born, except in 1969 so appalled were some women at my mother’s intention of being a working mother that they walked out in disgust".

English Othello Essay

Ultimately, in this Shakespearian drama, it is the representation of intense human relationship that captivates audiences.

Explore the representation of at least one intense human relationship in 'Othello' evaluating its significance in the play as a whole.

Shakespeare’s plays have often been acclaimed for his representation of the human condition and Othello is no exception. The play focuses on relationships, between lovers, friends, masters and their servants, to captivate the responder and express concerns and ideas of human nature. The intense relationship of Desdemona and Othello is a centrepiece to the play and its destruction throughout the play mirrors the downfall of Othello. It is this relationship that exposes Othello’s weakness and the passionate, intense nature of it is easily manipulated by Iago to become a weapon to be used against the hero and bring about his downfall.

The marriage between Desdemona and Othello is full of controversy. It is through Act 1 Scene 3 that Shakespeare explores the deep love between the pair, so much so that Desdemona is willing to betray her father for Othello. This is the first exploration of the passionate, extreme nature of their relationship, the intense love between Desdemona and Othello proving to be the hero’s fatal flaw which would lead to his eventual downfall. Desdemona’s loyalty to Othello, whilst flawless, is also first called into question in this act, when her father says “She has deceived her father and may thee’, foreshadowing how Iago will turn the nature of the relationship against them both. The drama of the secret marriage between the couple allows for Shakespeare to highlight the passionate nature of Othello, with lines such as “my life upon her faith”, introducing the flawed nature of the main character.

This extreme emotional closeness between Othello and his wife is continued to be publically displayed in Act 2, Scene 1. In the beginning of this act, as the pair celebrates being reunited in Cyprus, the expression of their passion allows for Iago to plot Othello’s downfall. Iago states aside; “O, you are well tuned now, But I’ll set down the pegs that make this music.” It can be seen that this passionate relationship between Othello and Desdemona opens Othello up to be easily exploited, thus exposing his greatest weakness to Iago, creating opportunity for him to destroy the hero.

As the play continues, Iago manipulates both Othello’s passionate nature and the relationship to use against the main character. Having manipulated the innocent actions of Desdemona into something to make Othello jealous, Iago has taken the relationship and turned it into a weapon. He plants the handkerchief that Othello gave Desdemona in Cassio’s bedchamber to make it appear as if Desdemona was not as loyal to Othello as he thought. Through this action, Iago manipulates the intense love Othello has for Desdemona into jealousy and rage, which comes into a public manifestation first with Othello falling into a fit and secondly with Othello striking his wife in public and scorning her. The intense relationship between the two lovers became a weapon for evil and was exploited as Othello’s weakness, creating the climax of the tragedy. 

Despite all this, Desdemona still professes her deep love for Othello. This can be seen as her downfall and the reason why she is killed. She says, in Act 4 Scene 2, to Iago “His unkindness may defeat my life But never taint my love.” This expresses her deep, undying love for Othello, her weakness that creates her to unnatural, extreme loyalty which leads her to follow his commands despite his actions, thus resulting in her death further on in the play. She also expresses this feeling when discussing the nature of fidelity with Emilia, declaring she would never commit adultery, even if it gave her husband the world. Not only is this dramatic irony, that she is so firm in her loyalty even as Othello plots to kill her for alleged infidelity, but it also demonstrates the other side to the passionate relationship, the other half of Othello’s weakness that brings about his downfall.

The final act of the intense, but fatally flawed, relationship of Othello and his wife is the murder of Desdemona. This action not only shows the end of the extreme, passionate relationship, but also is the defining fall from grace of Othello that was brought about through the manipulation of this relationship. Othello continues to be torn between his two intense emotions, his speech swinging between love and the intent to kill. Desdemona continues to deny any form of infidelity, begging for her life in such a manner that only increases the extreme jealousy and rage of Othello, brought about from the extreme love he still feels for his wife. But what is most symbolic of the intense love between the pair is when Desdemona wakes, for a brief moment, and when asked who killed her says “Nobody; I myself” protecting her husband even as he killed her.

The responder watches the development and exploitation of an intensely passionate relationship between Othello and Desdemona. It is highly significant to the play as a whole, as it exposes Othello’s weakness and is manipulated by Iago to bring about the hero’s downfall. The relationship’s end also symbolises Othello’s fall from grace, through the murder of his wife and then his suicide over the guilt for killing an innocent, faithful woman that he loved. Overall, this relationship plays out at the centre of the play, as both a way to develop characters and as a major plot piece and a weapon for Iago.

Comment: Excellent Work! Well structured and clearly and cohesively argued. The only improvement I could suggest would be to put some questions in at relevant points. 15/15


Essay by Torchi.