Society and Culture – Social and Cultural Research

In SAC, Social and cultural research plays an important role in the understanding of people across cultures and throughout society. SAC research can be used to find answers to questions of interest, to find possible solutions to problems of society and to help gain an understanding to why things are the way they are in society. The SAC syllabus outlines the social and cultural research process as follows:

• Clearly defining a question, a problem or topic of specific interest
  
• Planning the research by breaking the question, problem or topic into manageable sections
  
• Conducting a literature search by finding and reviewing appropriate secondary material about the research topic.
  
• Choosing appropriate methodologies (methodologies detailed in next post) for the research topic or question.
  
• Collecting facts pertinent to the problem, question or topic
  
• Organizing and interpreting collected data
  
• Evaluating methodologies, instruments and their applicability to the research topic
  
• Presenting findings using a variety of forms of communication
  

The SAC syllabus also states several techniques and methodologies of social and cultural research. These techniques are all useful and all have differing limitations so it is important to have an understanding of the different methodologies and their drawbacks in order to understand how to best use them in order to successfully perform social and cultural research.

Before outlining the methodologies, there are some important terms which must be understood:

Hypothesis – Social and cultural research is all about testing a hypothesis. A hypothesis is vital to Social and Cultural research. It is a statement of an idea that you have, that you are going to test via your research to find it true or false.

Quantitative research - This involves measurable, quantifiable data. Quantitative methodologies result in facts, figures, numerical data, graphs and diagrams. This data can be generalized beyond the immediate research and can be compared with other similar studies. Examples include: statistical analysis and closed ended questionnaires.

Qualitative research - This involves analysis not based upon precise measurement and quantitative data. Qualitative research is more based on opinion, subjectivity and detailed responses. It cannot be compared with other studies as easily or usefully as quantitative research, however it does allow for more detailed and personalized responses from the participants. Examples include: ethnographic studies, focus groups, interviews and participant observation.

Validity – The correlation between what research aims to measure and what it measures. A valid research measures exactly what it is supposed to measure.

Ethical considerations – As a researcher researching on people, it is important to follow a list of ethical guidelines as to ensure that you aren't taking advantage of or harming the participants of your studies. Some of these guidelines include:

• The welfare of your research subjects. (always takes precedence over your aims)
  
• Intellectual integrity and objectivity
  
• Respect of privacy and dignity
  
• Prevention of harm
  
• Confidentiality
  
• Acknowledgement of sources (plagiarism)
  
• Consent of subjects. It is unacceptable to pressure people to become involved in your research.
  
• Deception
  
• The application of research and social responsibility. For example, people who help you with your research should have the opportunity to view your results and conclusions.
  

SAC – Statistics from case study “Issues for aboriginal adolescents”

Crime stats:

• In Australia, Indigenous people are 13x more likely to be in Prison than non-indigenous people. In Western Australia, that statistic is 20x.
  

Education:

• At the age of 15, there is 20% less indigenous children in secondary schooling than non-indigenous children.
  

Housing:

• 34% of the indigenous population own a house, as opposed to 90% of the non-indigenous population.
  
• 14% of indigenous households were overcrowded to the extent of needing another bedroom than available.
  

Health:

• Indigenous people are 2x as likely to experience psychological trauma than non-indigenous people.
  

Cultural / kinship / family relations:

• 50% of S.A. indigenous children are victims of violence In homes
  
• 90% of women and 84% of young girls (under 18 years of age) out of a survey of 120 homes admitted to being raped at one stage of their life. Out of this statistic, 70% of these assaults were by husbands/ boyfriends.
  

Biology – Patterns in nature –3. Plants and animals have specialized structures to obtain nutrients from their environments

Identify some examples that demonstrate the structural and functional relationships between cell, tissue, organs and organ systems in multicellular organisms.

Cells: basic unit of life

Tissues: Cells with the same specialization

Organs: A collection of tissues which form together to make a specific function.

Organ system: Various organs function together as systems

Example:

Neurone (nerve cell)	Cell
Neurone tissue	Tissue
Brain	Organ
Nervous system	Organ system

 

Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs in terms of nutrient requirements

Autotroph: self feeders – are organisms which make their own foods. Plants are autotrophs and make their own food via photosynthesis.

Heterotrophs: other feeders – are organisms which rely on autotrophs for their food.

*As heterotrophs rely on autotrophs for their food, they gain their nutrients from the nutrients produced by autotrophs.

 

Identify the materials required for photosynthesis and its role in ecosystems

Materials required for photosynthesis:

• Carbon dioxide
  
• Water (from soil)
  
• Energy from sunlight
  
• Chlorophyll
  

Role in ecosystems:

• Provides nutrients for autotrophs and heterotrophs
  
• Provides oxygen for respiration (in mitochondria) in animal cells
  

Identify the general word equation for photosynthesis and outline as a chain of biochemical reactions

Carbon dioxide + water ---light energy--- > glucose + oxygen

Explain the relationship between the organization of structures used to obtain water and minerals in a range of plants and the need to increase surface area available for absorption.

Water is important to plants (and animals) because it is used in every cell to dissolve substances, carry the dissolved substances through the cell membrane and to use them in cell functions. Water loss must be counteracted to ensure that cells have enough liquid, otherwise they will die. Root hairs of roots absorb water from the soil through osmosis, the roots are long and the root hairs extend out through the soil to increase surface area available for water absorption. Minerals, which occur as dissolved ions in the water, absorbed by roots are necessary for organism growth and repair.

Explain the relationship between the shape of leaves, the distribution of tissues in them and their roles.

Flat shape	Large S.A. exposed to sunlight for photosynthesis
Mesophyll Cells	Contain large amounts of chloroplasts, to increase rate of photosynthesis
Stomata	Open and close to limit and increase the rate of gaseous exchange and loss of water
Spongy mesophyll	Creates an internal airspace in which co2 and water can diffuse in and oxygen can diffuse out
Xylem vessels	Transports water to photosynthetic cells
Phloem tissues	Transports products of photosynthesis (sugars)

 

Describe the role of teeth in increasing the surface area of complex foods for exposure to digestive chemicals

The roll of teeth in a digestive system is to break large foods into smaller pieces, increasing S.A and allowing larger exposure to digestive chemicals.

Explain the relationship between length and overall complexity of digestive systems of a vertebrate herbivore and a vertebrate carnivore with respect to: -the chemical composition of their diet, -the functions of the structures involved

Herbivore:

Chemical composition of diet: Mainly cellulose (from plants, found in cell wall), Nutrients are very dispersed and unconsecrated.

Length and complexity: Long digestive system in comparison to carnivores (especially the large intestine and caecum). The long large intestine provides a large surface area to absorb water and minerals. The increased surface area of the caecum provides a large surface area for the bacterial enzymes in the caecum to break down cellulose into less complex minerals. Some mammals (eg: cows) have 4 stomachs, which allow them to break down plant matter more efficiently, others re-digest fecal matter in to digest minerals which didn't have a chance to be absorbed the first time through. Herbivores have a large number of molar teeth which serve to grind down plant material, increasing S.A. for action of enzymes.

Carnivore:

Chemical composition of diet: Mainly protein diet (from tissues in animals), Nutrients are concentrated.

Length and complexity: short system in comparison to herbivores (reduced or no caecum, small long intestine and larger small intestine). The caecum isn't present in many carnivore digestive systems because carnivores do not have cellulose in their diet. The small large intestine is due to the large intestine being for water absorption, and carnivores don't rely on food for water. The larger small intestine serves to give a large area for digestion of food into the bloodstream. Carnivores have a large proportion of canine teeth for tearing flesh.

 

 

 

Biology – Patterns in nature – 1. Organisms are made of cells that have similar structural characteristics

Historical development of the cell theory

The development of the cell theory began in the late 1400s and early 1500s when lenses were first being used. In 1965, Robert Hooke was the first to look at an object (cork) under a microscope. A few years later in 1676, Leuinhooke looked at water and observed "living things". In 1827, Robert Brown showed that all living things were made of cells and that all cells were made up of smaller organelles.

Evidence supporting the cell theory

Cell theory is the theory of Schleiden and Schwann in 1838 that states "all living things are made up of cells, and all cells are made from pre-existing cells". There is much evidence supporting the cell theory, including the observation of cells through microscopes, the use of stains and dies to observe chemical processes for example observing chemical processes such as cell division, and the use of electron microscopes to gain an understanding of cell and organelle structure.

Identify cell organelles, their structure and function

Organelle	How organelle can be observed	Structure and function of organelle
Cell membrane	Light microscope	Composed of a bi-layer of phospholipids with proteins embedded within. Acts as a wall to control the flow of substances in and out of a cell.
Cytoplasm	Light microscope	A watery fluid which contains water and dissolved salts. Supports and suspends organelles and provides the cell organelles with water.
Nucleus	Light microscope	Control centre of a cell, surrounded by a double layered cell membrane which serves to protect DNA and stop it from leaving the nucleus. The nucleus houses DNA and regulates cell functions via protein synthesis.
Nuclear membrane	Electron microscope	A double layered membrane surrounding the nucleus which allows RNA and proteins in and out of the nucleus.
Nucleolus	Electron microscope	A dark spherical area inside the nucleus, contains RNA
Mitochondria	Electron microscope	Double membrane, inner membrane is folded into a cristrae for increased SA. Mitochondria converts chemical energy into biological energy, performing cell respiration. (glucose + oxgen -> carbon dioxide + water + ATP (chemical energy – Adenosine triphosphate)
Endoplasmic Reticulum	Electron microscope	A system of membranes, which act to connect the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. Used for transport and provides a surface for chemical reactions. There are two types of E.R. smooth: detoxifies harmful bacteria and makes lipids and steroids. No attached ribosomes Rough: aids the production of proteins thanks to attached ribosomes.
Ribosomes	Electron Microscope	The site of protein synthesis, where protein is built by the cell. They can be attached to rough E.R. or floating in cytoplasm.
Golgi body	Electron Microscope	Flattened sacs of cell membrane, stacked loosely on top of one another. Collects proteins produced by cells and packages them into vesicles.
Vacuoles and vesicles	Electron Microscope	Storage sacs containing food water and waste. Cacuoles are larger and formed in phagocycotis (cell eating) Vacuoles are smaller and formed by phagocytosis (cell eating)
Lysosomes	Electron Microscope	Double membraned vacuoles which contain lytic enzymes (digestive enzymes) Digest food vacuoles and allow an organism to destroy old/ malfunctioning cell parts.
Cilia and flagella	Optical Microscope	Hair like projectiles which use energy to move cells. Made of "microtubules" and function to move the cell or fluids. Cilia – short and many flagella – long and few
Centrioles (animal cell only)	Electron microscope	A pair of organelles which grow spindle fibres to attach and move chromosomes during mitosis
Cell wall (plant cell only)	Optical microscope	Made of long strands o cellulose, lignin and pectin and support the structure of an organism, protect the cell and form a bridge to adjacent cells
Chloroplasts (plant cell only)	Electron microscope	Have a double layered membrane and structures called stroma, which are bound to the membrane and organized into stacks called grana. Contain pigments and enzymes for photosynthesis as well as ribosomes and DNA.

Classification of Law

Legal Studies – Midcourse Study Notes

Classification of Law

Public Law

Public laws, referred to as social norms, are those laws that set the general standard of behaviour expected by a society. Public Laws include criminal law, administrative law and constitutional law.

Criminal Law

Criminal laws are usually established by statute, although some cases have established criminal law through common law. It is considered public law because when a person breaks a criminal law they are said to be harming all members of society. Hence, the case is brought by the police and prosecution on behalf of society. There are several broad classifications of criminal laws. They are:

• Crimes Against Persons – these crimes involve injury or threat of injury to another person
• Crimes Against Property – These crimes involve the theft or damage to another person’s property. Much of Australia’s law relates to this type of crime.
• Crimes Against the State or Sovereign – These involve crimes that damage the country and its people.
• Public Order Offenses – These crimes disrupt the activities of a society.
• Traffic Offenses
• White-Collar Crimes – This covers a wide variety of crime usually committed by professional people.
• Drug Offenses – These are offenses against the state involving prohibited narcotics.

Administrative Law
Administritive laws regulate the operation of the government and its various departments.

Constitutional Law
A constitution is a legal document outlining the powers and operation of the government. In a democratic society governments and its members must abide by the rules established in the constitution or they will be dismissed from office.

Private or Civil Law
Private law is often referred to as civil law and deals with legal relations between individuals and organisations. The key difference between private and public law is the role of the individual. In private law the individual brings the action and is called the Plantiff. There are three main areas of civil law:

• Contract Law - A contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more parties. Contract law stipulates that in order for a contract to be valid and therefore enforceable there must be:
• An ‘invitation to treat’
• An offer
• Consideration
• Acceptance
• Another feature of contract law is that it requires parties who enter into it a contract do so in good faith, which means that the parties will act fairly and not try and deceive the other party.
• Property Law - Anything that can be bought sold is considered property. There are numerous laws governing the way that property transactions are to take place. Insurance is a key aspect of property law.
• Tort Law - The law of torts involves civil wrongs; they are divided into four key areas:
• Tort of Negligence – Very common tort; revolves around the concept of ‘duty of care'.
• Tort of Nuisance – Involves one person interfering with another’s rights. Many cases that are heard in community justice centres involve this tort.
• Tort of Defamation
• Tort of Trespass

Criminal and Civil Court Procedures
Personnel:

• Judges and Magistrates – Preside over courts, they are legally qualified professionals. Judges sit in intermediate and superior courts and their role is to adjudicate in cases. The judge is also required to issues sentences and rulings. A magistrate sits in the inferior courts and determines cases, issues rulings and sentences.
• Barristers – They provide legal advice and present their clients case in court.
• Solicitors – Usually the first person that someone who is seeking legal advice will approach. Mostly they make no appearance in courts. Main duties include the preparation of wills, family law issues and the drawing up of legal documents. Main role is to prepared the case or brief for a barrister.

Procedures for Criminal Cases
Two parties are referred to as prosecutor and defendant. Prosecution represents the community and in trials is referred to as the crown. Usually has a jury of 12 people, who’s role it is to determine the case. The Judge role is to advise the jury and to deal with any questions of the law. The jury must be convinced beyond reasonable doubt. The burden of proof lies on the prosecution. If the defendant is found guilty, the judge will order a sentencing hearing where the judge will determine the sentence to be given.

Procedures for Civil Cases
Two parties are known as plaintiff and defendant. The process begins with a statement of claim, which is then served and responded to with a statement of defence. If the dispute is not resolved, it then goes to trial. The judge then awards relief if in favour of plaintiff, depending on the balance of probabilities.

Common and Civil Law Systems

• Common Law Systems - Key feature is the ability of judges to make laws, which is limited to only where there is a gap in statue law. It developed from England and its common law.
• Civil Law Systems - The Roman civil law system has no room for judges to make laws and it makes use of the inquisitorial system (the judges investigate rather than have the evidence show to them by each side in the adversarial system).
  

Society and Culture – Social and Cultural world - Concepts

The unit "The Social and cultural world" is a study on the interactions between persons, societies, cultures and environments both in contemporary society and societies across time. In this unit there is a list of fundamental concepts which are important to understand as part of the SAC course.

As with my previous post on the concepts of society and culture these definitions are only broad overhangs in efforts to provide a basic understanding of the concepts.

Social and cultural literacy

The goal of the SAC course is to achieve Social and Cultural literacy. A socially and culturally literate person is able to communicate across society and other societies as they understand their place in society and are able to understand the different values, beliefs, customs and behaviors. They understand that people's values and beliefs may differ dramatically both within their society and across societies and are able to communicate to them without bias, judgment or prejudice because of their differing behaviors.

Micro world

A person's micro world is their immediate world of connections, consisting of family, peers, school and work, as well as any other social groups that a person may belong to. It is the world that you are connected to via personal experience, and throughout the SAC course you are often asked to refer to examples from your micro world.

Macro world

This refers to the broad outside world that exists beyond your micro world. It is the world communicated through access to public knowledge. Your country, the international community or the rest of your society outside of your direct connections are your macro world.

Community

The term community generally refers to a group of people who are drawn together by common interests, ideas, values, location and networks.

Communication

Communication is what undermines societies, because communication is the way that people within society interact with one another. Communication can refer to the macro world forms of communication such as television, the internet and newspapers as well as micro world communication in the form of talking. Communication can also refer to the reflected ideas of symbols within a society (eg: flags).

Conflict

Conflict is the disagreements that occur within the various levels of a society. Conflict is caused by inequality within a society, a lack of understanding of differing ideas and values or a struggle for power. (example of conflict: Trade unions and employer organizations frequently disagreeing over workers rewards and conditions).

Socialization

The socialization process is the progression from a child to an adult within a society. Socialization is learning the values and beliefs of your culture as well as developing your personal values and understanding of the world. By the end of the socialization process, an unsocialised child will become a fully functioning and belonging member of their society.

Enculturation

Enculturation is the learning of accepted patterns and behaviors of a culture, and how to implement them in order to fit into a society.

Acculturation

Acculturation is the learning and understanding of other cultures and the transfer of knowledge from one culture to one another.

Cooperation

Collaboration refers to the collaboration of people in a society working together to achieve a common goal. "team behavior" is cooperation in action.

Change

Change is the understanding that something has become different to the way it was before. It refers to the break in a tradition and the differing beliefs and values that occur across time.

Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism refers to a society in which people with a wide variety of cultural practices are present. Australia for example, is referred to as a multicultural society because even though there are a wide variety of cultural differences between the people within the Australian society, yet they all act as one society. Multiculturalism is an example of intercultural communication in action.

Society and Culture – The Concepts

In Society and Culture (from now on abbreviated SAC) there are 5 Major concepts through which students use in order to interpret and discuss personal experiences from their micro worlds and through observation of their macro world (Micro and Macro worlds to be covered in my next blog post). These concepts (Society, Culture, Persons, Environment and Time) all make up the backbone of the society and culture course and are used in order to gain an understanding of the world, societies and cultures. In addition to the 5 major concepts, there is also 4 secondary concepts (Technology, Power, Authority and Gender) which are often also referred to and used when performing a depth study and throughout the course.

The following is an attempt to make a very brief summary of the fundamental ideas behind the concepts, although, this should not be taken as gospel as these concepts are broad and open to interpretation.

Society

The concept of society refers to the links which connect people together as a group. The connections within a society can be as large scale as the media or as small scale as a sporting group. A society is bacically a collaboration of these groups, to form a network of people. The SAC syllabus defines society as "human relationships from small groups to large systems".

Culture

The concept of Culture refers to the shared ideas, knowledge and beliefs of a society. Values, arts, technology and laws are all examples of the culture of a society, and different cultures may have differing views on these areas. The SAC syllabus defines culture as "Knowledge shared by members of these groups and systems and reflected in their customs, values, laws, arts, technology and artifacts; their way of life.

Persons

The concept of Persons refers to the individuals within a society. Although each person has their own individual values, opinions and connections which differ from those of other people, each person of a society for the most part maintains the beliefs and ideas of their culture. The SAC syllabus defines persons as "The individual human; their relationships with other persons and with society, culture and the environment over time".

Environment

The concept of environment refers to both the physical and meta-physical settings in which a person is situated. The Social environment of a society and psychological environment of a culture are examples of the metaphysical environments. The SAC syllabus defines environment as "Settings where people live and work, the interaction between people and their environment, their perceptions of the environment and their actions to improve their environment"

Time

The concept of time refers to the constant advances through society, and is measured as "past, present and future". The main points of discussion of time in regards to SAC involve the changes that have occurred within a society from the past and perceptions of what the future will be like. The SAC syllabus defines time as "the conscious passage of existence; perceptions of the past, present and future".